Archaeology

Three new species (Liriodendroidea alata, L. latirapha, and L. carolinensis) are established based on well-preserved seeds from the Late Cretaceous of Kazakhstan and eastern North America. The Kazakhstan material is Cenomanian-Turonian in age and represents the oldest well-supported occurrence of the Magnoliaceae in the Cretaceous. The North American material is slightly younger (Campanian). The seeds described here share several critical characters with seeds of extant and Tertiary species of Liriodendron (Magnoliaceae) including anatropous organization and endotestal seed coat structure with a distinct endotesta of palisade-shaped sclerenchyma cells containing fibrous lignifications and cubic crystals. Other characters shared with Liriodendron and other Magnoliaceae include the characteristic fingerprint-like pattern on the surface of the endotesta and formed from the cells of the mesotesta, the presence of a distinct heteropyle, and a thin, crushed tegmen. The Cretaceous seeds from Kazakhstan and North Carolina differ, however, from those of modern Liriodendron in their smaller size and in having a distinct wing indicating that seeds were dispersed separately by wind in contrast to seeds of Liriodendron that are dispersed within the indehiscent and winged fruitlets. The occurrence of several adhering seeds documents that the fruitlets in at least two species of Liriodendroidea contained more than two seeds, a feature which indicates a shift in reproductive strategy in the tribe Liriodendreae from the Cretaceous to the present.

In 2002, Paul Crutzen coined the term Anthropocene as a human-made geological period. He asserted that it began in the 18th century CE with the Industrial Revolution, a period during which there were significant global changes including the extinction of animal and plant species, an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, and global warming. However, further studies reconstructing the ancient environmental conditions of the Holocene and Pleistocene periods show that significant environmental changes resulting from anthropogenic activities took place long before the Industrial Revolution. Accordingly, the term “Paleo-Anthropocene” came into use as the period of time between the appearance of the earliest hominima (2.5-2.8 million years BP) until the Industrial Revolution. During this time period, evidence suggests the extinction of megafauna and the onset of the agricultural revolution, leading to increasing CO2 emissions and changes in the composition of plant and animal species.
A review of key points of the Palaeo-Anthropocene record in Israel reveals ancient human imprints on the landscape. Some examples given in this study are: that approximately 50% of the slopes in the Jerusalem hills are covered with ancient agricultural terraces; destruction and siege of ancient cities caused erosion and fill processes and changes in the vegetation distribution pattern; while forest clearing and agricultural activities changed the species composition; for example, the appearance of weeds and the domestication of olive trees. The arrival of various ethnic groups resulted in the introduction of exotic flora and fauna that had not been observed previously in the region. For example, the Persians introduced Juglans regia (Persian walnut) and Citrus medica (citron) while the Philistines introduced pigs with a European genotype. Today, that pig’s genotype is typical of Israel’s wild boar population, as opposed to the local wild boar seen in other Levantine regions.
In summary, these changes show that aspects of the landscape system in Israel are anthropogenic rather than purely natural, and that changes, some of which occurred long in the past, shape today’s landscape system. The above findings might help determine management of the current landscape system in Israel, as it is an anthropogenic one and not naturally “pristine”.

Human migrations across geographic boundaries can facilitate the introduction of new husbandry practices and dispersal of plants and animals, resulting in changes in biodiversity. As previously demonstrated, the 12th century BC Philistine migration – to the southern Levantine littoral, involved the transportation of pigs from Europe, engendering long term genetic displacement of local Near Eastern haplotypes. Building on this, and combining biogeographical methods of Floral List comparisons with archaeological data, we have elucidated the Philistine impact on Southern Levantine floral ecosystems. We demonstrate that previously unexploited local plants were incorporated into the Philistine milieu, and new species were introduced – from Europe, the Aegean, Egypt and Mesopotamia –resulting in the earliest locally cultivated sycamore, cumin, coriander, bay tree and opium poppy. This research has highlighted the impact of past cultures on the formation of floral ecosystems and their long-term effects on contemporary local biological diversity.

In this study it is demonstrated that with the appearance of the Philistine culture in Canaan, not only did new species of plants appear, species which originate in different parts of the eastern Mediterranean, but new modes of utilization of various plants species already existing in the Levant can be seen. This not only strengthens previous evidence of the multiple origins of the Philistine migrants, but also shows that the Philistine culture had new and different food patterns and agrarian traditions. In addition, it demonstrates the applicability of an “invasion biology” perspective in the study of bioarchaeological remains, and its implications for understanding past and present biodiversity.

Here we present a case study using modern ecological data (collected over the period 1948-2014) to assess changes that
took place in plant and animal occurrences in the 12th century BCE in Philistia – the southern coastal plain of Israel and
the Judean foothills in its immediate hinterland, as a result of either shifts in anthropogenic behavior or climate. Using
published archaeobotanical and archaeozoological data from several archaeological sites in this region (e.g. Tel Aphek, Tell
es-Safi/Gath, Tel Miqne/Ekron, Ashkelon), we compared habitat associations of these palaeo-assemblages to observations
on modern plants and animals from the same geographic region. Multivariate analytical methods, DCA and CCA ordination, showed mesic to xeric gradients in both the modern and the archaeological data. The clearest pattern in the archaeological data was a separation of Late Bronze Age (mesic) from Iron Age I and Iron Age II sites (xeric). We interpret this shift as reflecting the decrease in rainfall between the Late Bronze Age (ca.1550-1180 BCE) and Iron Age (ca. 1180-586 BCE)
periods, a phenomenon that has been documented in the Eastern Mediterranean in general by other palaeoclimatic proxies (e.g. pollen, cave speleothems and the Dead Sea level).

Human migrations across geographic boundaries can facilitate the introduction of new husbandry practices and dispersal of plants and animals, resulting in changes in biodiversity. As previously demonstrated, the 12th century BCE Philistine migration–to the southern Levantine littoral, involved the transportation of pigs from Europe, engendering long term genetic displacement of local Near Eastern haplotypes. Building on this, and combining biogeographical methods of Floral List comparisons with archaeological data, we have elucidated the Philistine impact on Southern Levantine floral ecosystems. We demonstrate that previously unexploited local plants were incorporated into the Philistine milieu, and new species were introduced–from Europe, the Aegean, Egypt and Mesopotamia –resulting in the earliest locally cultivated sycamore, cumin, coriander, bay tree and opium poppy. This research has highlighted the impact of past cultures on the formation of floral ecosystems and their long-term effects on contemporary local biological diversity. Human migrations across geographic boundaries promote the long-distance dispersal of plants and animals , resulting in biological invasions. Together with new techniques of land management that often accompany the migrants, this leads to long term changes in natural biomes. Salient examples include the European conquest of the New World 1 , the Roman occupation of Britain 2 and dispersion of Neolithic domesticates across the Old World 3,4. Here we propose a novel research approach aiming to study the different anthropogenic impacts on an ecosystem resulting from the advent of an extinct historical culture, the Philistines 5,6 –one of the so-called " Sea Peoples " –that appeared in the southern Levantine littoral, after ca. 1,200 BCE. Until quite recently, the accepted view was that the Philistines originated from a single region, most likely somewhere in the Aegean 7,8. Recent research 5,6,9 has revised this view and shown that in fact, the Philistine culture is comprised of migrants of multiple foreign origins, including the Aegean, who, when arriving in Canaan, intermingled with local Canaanites. The non-Levantine origin of a substantial portion of the Philistine culture is evidenced by their distinctive architecture, ceramic ware, technologies and ritual activities that point to their diverse and multifaceted origins with different components resembling Aegean, Cypriot, Anatolian, Egyptian and even Southeast European cultures 5,6,9. In contrast to the situation during the previous period, the Late Bronze Age, where most of the foreign components seen in the Southern Levant arrive due to trade connections with various parts of the eastern Mediterranean 10 , it is clear that the majority of the non-local facets found in early Philistine

Conclusions
•The soil erosion rate was relatively lower when the area was settled due to constant housing and field
maintenance.
•Small fields contributed to lower erosion intensity and higher plant biodiversity.
•Traditional methods of land management (e.g., shallow plowing, terrace walls, grazing in forests) helped
sustain the Mediterranean landscape.
• Modern management of cultural and natural areas should rely on preservation of ancient remains as well as
the application of traditional practices.

ABSTRACT: This article proposes and tests a novel interdisciplinary method for
reconstructing the ancient humans’ environment by using plant imprints on pottery.
Sherds with plant imprints may provide a valuable source for reconstructing
certain components of the ancient vegetation, and the imprints may represent a link
to the potter’s immediate environment, pottery production methods, and the local
cultural relationships with plants. We examined 15 sherds with plant imprints
retrieved from Hellenistic strata from the Givªati Parking Lot, Jerusalem. Plant
imprints were analysed for their position on the vessel and to determine which
plant organ was presented; the imprints were then scanned and measured to determine
the plant species. Results show clear evidence for the intentional use of green
leaves for vessel rim repair. Archaeobotanical analysis of these sherds has also
revealed the earliest evidence for the presence of fig tree, Ficus carica, in Jerusalem
and the surrounding region. These results show that analysis of plant leaf
imprints on pottery can further improve the reconstruction of ancient settlement
life and its environmental conditions.

Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro- and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to
disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.

Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro-and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.

Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro-and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.

Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro-and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.